Why Talk About Death March? On Trends and Mechanics in Isekai Fiction

This is an article adaptation of this video I made.

A common conception of isekai is that of laziness. Outside of very popular series like ‘TenSura’ or ‘Mushoku Tensei,’ most isekai anime don’t get more than one cour. As the vast majority are fantasy and most follow common genre threads, such as dying and being reincarnated or being summoned as a hero. Without thinking, a lot of people consider most isekai anime to be thoughtless clones of each other. An anime that was aggressively steeped in this conception was ‘Death March kara Hajimaru Isekai Kyousoukyoku.’

Death March is a Narou-kei isekai, which was originally a web novel on Syosetsu, then adapted as a light novel, manga, and anime. Its plot is about a game developer being transported to another world, a fantasy world filled with a lot of common elements. But how Death March uses these elements is interesting and in particular, I think it’s an incredibly useful work to understand how isekai function.

You can think about it this way: you have a grandfather clock, you open it up and you’re able to peer into the clock and see how it works. The cogs, gears, pendulums all reveal themselves. You can understand it through its transparency, the individual parts, the guts on display.

That's what Death March is to isekai. So, what do I mean by that? I want to talk about three segments of Death March and how it talks about isekai as a genre. The first one being:

1. Slavery as metaphor for Game Logic

When people talk about isekai being “problematic,” they almost always start with the implementation of slavery within these stories. Usually citing the main character’s nonchalant attitude towards the institution, they make an argument that isekai is either slavery apologia or downright fetishism. While there isn’t just one reason why slavery is common in isekai, I do think it’s really important to note that slavery in isekai, more specifically narou-kei isekai, draw very visible parallels to JRPGs such as ‘Dragon Quest’ or ‘Chrono Trigger,’ especially in terms of how NPC companions and parties function.

In episode 3 of Death March, the main character, Satou, and dozens of people become trapped in a labyrinth designed by a demon. And in this labyrinth, Satou wakes up next to the three slaves he tried to save prior. So what happens? Well, he uses them like party members in what essentially is a dungeon in a video game. While he develops strategies with his newly formed party, it reveals what Death March thinks of slavery:

An analog for party mechanics. He didn't buy them, he didn't kidnap them. He partied with them. They level up and he gives them better gear. There’s even a boss at the end of the level. Not even to mention that all of these girls have separate classes and abilities. Again, party dynamics.

Screenshot from episode 3 of **Death March**

So, why is it written like this? It's in some part, because these stories are written by amateur writers and a lot of these writers play RPGs. When talking about companionship or marriage in games, their loyalty isn’t consensual, it’s a mechanic. And so, how do you write a character that operates like an NPC? You remove their agency. You write a slave.

“...when you have that particular idea of how a story is written, in the form of a game. But you don’t actually want to make a game like that. You want to write a story, just the story, and none of the game parts; then you write narou-kei, you write an isekai. But at the same time if that’s how you understand how these kinds of stories work out, that you have a party, you build a party. But one person determines how that party operates. Then what do you do? Well, literally, you rob the character of its agency. You use slaves. The slave is the literal metaphor for the game system.” [1]

I think we have to talk about ‘Shield Hero’ (Tate no Yuusha no Nariagari): Shield Hero was often the example used when talking about slavery in isekai. Particularly in context to how he purchased Raphtalia, and how she talks about being a slave to him. But we do have to remember Shield Hero is fundamentally about RPG classes and dynamics.

Because of the challenges created by the conspiracy to lambast the main character, Naofumi; he’s unable to party with anyone. So, he purchases a slave. Because he’s a defensive class, he needs an offensive member. This is important when we talk about RPG dynamics, because in MMORPGs, there are times when you can’t party with anyone. The author of Shield Hero, Yusagi Aneko has talked about how they were inspired by online games like Ragnarok Online. In which their favorite character class, a defensive crusader, was to quote “virtually impossible to level one up without a party.” [2]

And when the slave contract seal is put onto Raphtalia’s chest, Naofumi gets a pop up in the interface that says “party settings'' (同行設定) and when she kills something they both gain EXP further exemplifying the party mechanics.

Screenshot from episode 2 of 'Shield Hero’ displaying Raphtalia’s stats after Naofumi acquires her as a slave.

This isn’t to say slavery as metaphor can never be criticized. But rather to try and understand how and why these texts use it. Its usage and history seem to stem far more from game logic than real examples of slavery. It also helps us understand this sort of logic when it’s used in more obfuscated ways:

Tensei shitara Slime Datta Ken, for example, doesn’t have explicit slaves. But we can still see the game logic within the monsters that Rimuru names. Naming party members is a common mechanic in RPGs. But when Rimuru names them, it makes them stronger.

They physically evolve after they’re named reminiscent of a ‘**Pokémon**’ evolving after being in the player’s party.

Image from ‘Pokemon Crystal’ where a nicknamed Haunter evolves due to a trading mechanic

After Satou and his newly gained party members beat the dungeon and leave, a slave merchant who was saved tries to get Satou to purchase more slaves. Satou initially refuses until he sees Arisa. Arisa pronounces his name 'Satou' (さとう) correctly. Up until now, Satou and the native population has been pronouncing his name ‘Satoo’ (サトゥー). This triggers Satou to actually purchase the two slaves; he knows Arisa’s Japanese. With this, it brings up another element of Death March:

2. What Happens if You Fail in Another World? (Soft Power)

Arisa was a Japanese woman, specifically an OL (Office Lady), who was murdered then reincarnated into the other world as an heir to a kingdom. She tried to implement modern agricultural reform. But her country falls into ruin after a war. And this is really interesting right? Because it flies in the face of a common theme of isekai, that of, soft power.

Soft power, as Joseph Nye writes, “...is the ability to get what you want through attraction rather than coercion or payments. It arises from the attractiveness of a country's culture, political ideals, and policies.” [3] Japan, a nation that lost most of its right to impose itself militarily, often imposes itself through culture. We can see this in the Cool Japan Program [4] or Washoku. [5]

Poster from the JNTO promoting the **Cool Japan** program featuring Rei from ‘**Neon Genesis Evangelion**’

When talking about isekai, I argue we should not ignore the fact that the protagonists being sent to other worlds are Japanese, because isekai doesn’t ignore it. In some shape or another, a large chunk of isekai features a dialogue predicated on the soft power of the Japanese protagonists versus the native population. Whether it be foodstuffs, education, or technology; the protagonists typically have a leg up.

And it can go more immaterial as well, we can consider **‘Isekai Houtei.‘** The main character, Yuuto Shiiba dies and a God requests his aid to bring Japanese law to her world. But she didn’t choose Japanese law because she evaluated it as the best legal system on its own merits. But rather chose it because it’s Japanese. Because of this, she’s entirely comfortable bringing Shiiba, a man who failed the bar exam five times, over to her world. Shiiba himself is shown to be overpowered despite his lack of success in Japan.

But this doesn't happen in Death March... Arisa fails. Arisa, this sort of classical tensei isekai protagonist, fails. Her agricultural policy doesn’t save the country from ruin. So, what happens if you fail in another world? Soft power isn’t enough and you’re helpless. In Death March, at least, you’re sold into slavery. A sort of metaphorical game over.

From Chapter 15 of the **Death March** manga

In episode 5, Arisa interrogates Satou, asking him, “Were you reincarnated or summoned?” Both are incredibly common modes of transport in isekai and both have their own implications. Arisa assumes he was summoned as he still maintains his “Japanese” appearance. But to her surprise, he responds with “neither.” This brings up more elements of Death March:

3. Karoshi, Tensei, and Slow Life

“On 24 March 1999, 58-year-old manager of golf equipment purchasing, Nonaka Masaharu, had burst into the company president’s 9th floor office to complain about the firm’s restructuring plans and at being asked to step down from his post. In a letter of complaint he wrote that, ‘loyal workers are being discarded like torn up rags’ and, producing two long fish-carving knives, he sliced open his own belly in a ritual self disembowelment, or seppuku. Dubbed ‘Japan’s First Corporate Harakiri’” [6]

Death is a necessary element of tensei isekai. But what death represents tells us a lot about the genre’s attitude towards modernity.

Karoshi (death by overwork), at least how we think about it, is a product of Japan’s postwar economy. Emerging in the Showa era, salaryman masculinity became the standard. [7] To be a good Japanese man is to be a good worker. After school, you get a job, you build a family, and you die in that job.

Before Karoshi, ‘Kacho-byo’ (Middle Manager Disease) was used. The idea was that death by overwork is something that only happens to bosses, the boss works hard, so the worker works hard. [8] But during the Bubble Economy, and over the subsequent ‘Lost Decade,’ Karoshi became the standard. By that point, it became an epidemic of the salaryman. [7]

A common trope you see thrown around is ‘Truck-kun.’ A truck barrels through an intersection killing the main character, and in the genre of isekai, thrusting them into another world. [9] One connection we can make is to the 2008 Akihabara Massacre, in which Tomohiro Kato drove a truck into a crowd of people and lunged at them with a knife. [10] A man who himself was alienated by his labor. [11] But there’s also another connection we can draw:

To the alienated worker, a salaryman, it can seem like there isn't an out. Even within suicide, there’s still an expectation to fulfill your role as a Shakai-jin (社会人, working adult.) Tobikomi Jisatsu (飛び込み自殺, Suicide by train) or more commonly used but less specific, Jinshin Jiko (人身事故, Human Accident) has the element of accountability for making everyone late to work. [12] Japanese rail companies have also charged the families of the deceased with legal fines. [13] Within a truck accident lies a death presented without ties to personal responsibility.

isekai, especially tensei isekai, are often stories where the overworked salaryman escapes their predicament. When we talk about “wish fulfillment” in terms of isekai, I argue this is what we should talk about. After all, if you feel stuck in your current predicament, alienated by your labor. Having a one way ticket to a life in which you have agency and control over yourself, to have more time, to be less stressed. It makes sense you would seek out a slow life.

In 1980s Italy, activists started a movement called ‘Slow Food’, it was a critique of ‘Fast Food’ and its impact on modernity. [14] But in Japan, the concept took on much more of a labor focus. It transformed in to the concept of ‘Slow Life’ and In 2001, the tenth year of the lost decade, the prefecture of Iwate started ‘Ganbaranai Sengen’ (がんばらない宣言) or the ‘Take-It-Easy Declaration.’ In the following decades, NPOs, city and prefectural governments, and activist groups have been working towards less overtime labor.

"Do you feel restless when you're not busy? Do you feel uneasy when you're not working hard? You don't have to live that way!" This is the unexpected message on the back of business cards of employees at the Iwate Prefectural Office.” [15]

So, how is slow life relevant to isekai? Well, on Syosetsu, there’s a slow life tag. Slow life stories, while not always isekai, are often focused on people (typically office workers) being able to live a much slower, and comfortable life in another world. It also tends to draw upon the ideals and aesthetics of the rural countryside, the polar opposite of Tokyo life. [16] Mirroring real life campaigns to increase tourism and migration to rural areas, including regions affected by the 3/11 disaster. [17] Slow life isekai ends up sort of being a fantasy analog for the real transference of these urban migrants. [18]

For example, Slime Taoshite 300-nen, Shiranai Uchi ni Level Max ni Nattemashita, a slow life tagged story about an OL (Office lady) named Azusa who died of karoshi and was reincarnated into another world. Remembering the exhaustion from overworking herself to death, she wishes the goddess who reincarnates her to give her immortality and expresses the desire to live a ‘slow life.’ She’s able to do what she wasn’t able to do in life: leave her working conditions and mentalities. And following the course of the series, Azusa directly opposes those same mentalities that could lead to karoshi:

From Chapter 4 of the Slime Taoshite 300-nen manga

And I don’t think this is a coincidence. People often talk about Shounen or Shoujo demographics when talking about anime and manga. But they often don’t talk about the age and occupational demographics of isekai. Syosetsu’s readers tend to skew towards office workers in their 20s-30s, and this does influence authors to what sort of stories they write. Inori, author of ‘I Favor the Villainess’ mentioned the reason she chose the main character to be an office lady was because:

“Lots of readers on Shousetsuka ni Narou are working women, so I went with a female office worker because she represents a lot of working women tired with their jobs. That makes it easier for readers to sympathize with the protagonist.” [19]

In a side story, we’re able to see Arisa’s life before she died. As a Japanese woman, she was an OL.

4. Why talk about Death March?

If we go back to the protagonist of Death March: Real name Suzuki Ichirou was a game developer, working on two separate games at the same time, both with their own developmental problems. This is why you have the name ‘Satou,’ it’s the name of his game debugging character.

The title ‘Death March’ is a reference to a term used in game and software development. It describes a project that is more than likely doomed to fail because of a lack of time, resources, or labor but continues anyway despite this. Forcing everyone to work overtime, marching to their death. The term is similar to that of ‘crunch’ often used when talking about game development. And, at the very least, imagines karoshi as an accepted reality. [20]

From Chapter 1 of the **Death March** manga.

Right before Satou goes to sleep, he laments the fact that the users will complain about delays but he doesn’t care since it’s been 30 hours since he’s slept. Those sorts of complaints are one of the mentalities that leads to crunch being commonplace. [21]

Linking back to his answer of ‘neither’ to whether or not he was reincarnated or summoned. What he thought was falling asleep was actually dying of karoshi. He was reincarnated. But not as an infant or a non-human form; he was reincarnated into himself. But as a teenager. Interestingly, his only escape from work is not just going to another world. But physically being the age he was before working.

And going back to the idea of slow life, Death March isn’t tagged with it, but instead is tagged with kankou (観光) or ‘sightseeing.’ [22] Because despite Satou being a typical narou-kei protagonist, he doesn’t want to use his overwhelming power to gain social or literal capital. He mostly wants to travel with his party. Satou, a person who died of karoshi, just wants to spend his time leisurely instead of overworking. This really hammers in the idea of what sort of wish fulfillment tensei isekai tend to display.

In short, I argue that people aren’t really aware of the grounds in which these stories stand and I think Death March is one of the most egregious victims to this opinion due to its more deconstructed view of narou fiction… Well, what is narou fiction?

Shousetsuka ni Narou or Syosetsu (literally “Let’s Become a Novelist”) is a user generated web novel platform. It’s a platform which structurally encourages intertextuality between works. Through daily rankings, user comments, author blogs and usage of genre keywords. It encourages authors to write in response to what others are writing and reading at the time. Genres like Tensei, Shoukan or even isekai come from these sorts of platform-determined conditions.

Screenshot of Shousetsuka ni Narou website

Writer Kim Morrissy mentions that in the mid 2000s, when Syosetsu was a new website, It hosted a lot of fanfiction. [23] The same year that Syosetsu was founded, the popular light novel fantasy series ‘Zero no Tsukaima’ started. A story where a young boy is, at random, transported to a fantasy world through a portal. Which spawned a plethora of original fanfiction based on its IP. This is one of the founding inspirations for the isekai genre. Again, narou fiction is formed through the platform's conditions.

Another example we can look at is Kaifuku Jutsushi no Yarinaoshi (Redo of Healer)’s author Rui Tsukiyo. Who mentioned that he was motivated to write Redo of Healer because he saw revenge stories top the daily rankings of Syosetsu and thought he should contribute. [24]

"There's a site called Shousetsuka ni Narou, where users can upload their writing. And many of the top-ranking submissions on the site were revenge stories... Since they were popular and I like them, I thought I would write my own. But those other stories were weak, they kept talking about revenge. But after like, two or three chapters, the revenge aspect would be over. And then it just turns into the story of a cheat protagonist with a harem."

How a genre or tag starts trending within narou fiction isn’t too dissimilar to trends within websites like YouTube. After all, they both are platforms in which creators publish their works within a common space and receive direct feedback from its consumers. And this isn’t even to mention the fact that Syosetsu isn’t the only user-generated web novel platform which hosts isekai or narou type fiction. Works like GATE, Youjo Senki, and Overlord all started on a similar platform, Arcadia. Overlord of which actually moved to Syosetsu. [25]

Screenshot of **http://www.mai-net.net/** or **‘Arcadia’**

When people talk about isekai or works that share the same platform lineage, they often only judge these works on the basis of the adaptation they’re consuming. Which, inadvertently or not, ignores the narratological roots this sort of fiction stems from.

When the anime adaptation of Death March came out, it was incredibly demeaned as a “generic isekai.” Anime News Network said, “...Death March is utterly rote and boring. There's not a unique bone in its body…” [26] If we go by the common criticism of it, Death March’s story and its story elements inherently make it cliché. But we would then never consider that the elements are constructed in a way to strip away the layers that make narou fiction.

I argue that Death March so thoroughly understands itself as narou fiction, that it lays itself flat. The direct approach to slavery as an analog for party mechanics. Arisa’s pure soft power failed in order to reveal the underpinned imperialist sentiments. And the work itself being so blunt about its relation to labor conditions intertwined with its video game influences.

Death March itself is a medium in which to view the structure of isekai and narou fiction through, like the glass pain on the door of the grandfather clock.

Citations

[1] Pause and Select. “My unedited rant on slavery in isekai.” 2018.
https://youtu.be/DrxG0tTIqbg

[2] One Peace Books. “An interview with Aneko Yusagi.” 2015.
https://www.onepeacebooks.com/profiles/aneko.html
Archived version (2023):
https://web.archive.org/web/20231030005213/https://www.onepeacebooks.com/profiles/aneko.html

[3] Nye, Joseph. “Soft Power: The Means To Success In World Politics.” 2004. Page 5.

[4] Galbraith, Patrick W. “The Otaku Encyclopedia: An insider’s guide to the subculture of Cool Japan.” 2009. Page 50.

[5] Japan Times. Kyodo News. “Japanese cuisine wins cultural heritage status.” 2013.
https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2013/12/05/national/japanese-cuisine-added-to-unesco-intangible-heritage-list/
Archived version (2020): https://web.archive.org/web/20201111170035/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2013/12/05/national/japanese-cuisine-added-to-unesco-intangible-heritage-list/

[6] Matanle, Peter, McCann, Leo & Ashmore, Darren. “Men Under Pressure: Representations of the ‘Salaryman’ and his Organization in Japanese Manga.” 2008. Page 3.

[7] Dasgupta, Romit. “The "Lost Decade" of the 1990s and Shifting Masculinities in Japan.” 2009.

[8] Herbig, Paul A. & Palumbo, Frederick A. “Karoshi: Salaryman Sudden Death Syndrome.” 1994. Page 2.

[9] Katoyuu. Hatena blog. “転生トラックの元ネタを探しに行った.”
https://katoyuu.hatenablog.jp/entry/reincarnationtruck
Blog post about “Tensei Truck.” The Japanese version of “Truck-kun.”

[10] Dolan, David. Reuters. “Man stabs shoppers in Tokyo street, killing seven.” 2008.
Archived (2020):
https://web.archive.org/web/20200815205751/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-japan-stabbing/man-stabs-shoppers-in-tokyo-street-killing-seven-idUST27752620080608

[11] The Yomiuri Shimbun. “Kato 'claims job despair made him kill'” 2008.
Archived version (2013):
https://archive.ph/20080614095348/http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/national/20080611TDY01301.htm

[12] Fisch, Michael. "Tokyo's Commuter Train Suicides and the Society of Emergence." 2013.

[13] Healy, Alison. The Irish Times. “Families fined for suicides in Japan.” 2000.
https://www.irishtimes.com/news/health/families-fined-for-suicides-in-japan-1.1104002

[14] Petrini, Carlo. “Slow Food: The Case for Taste.” 2001. Page 12.

[15] JFS Newsletter No. 14. “The 'Slow Life' Movement: Happiness Before Economic Efficiency.” 2003. https://www.japanfs.org/en/news/archives/news_id027770.html

[16] 押根こむる @katers_murr. Syosetsu. “スローライフとは.” (What is Slow Life?) 2016.
https://ncode.syosetu.com/n7658dh/

[17] Dentsu Inc. East Japan Railway Company. “Slow Train, Slow Life. ‘Get Back, Tohoku.’” 2017.
https://www.oneclub.org/awards/theoneshow/-award/25578/slow-train-slow-life-get-back-tohoku

[18] Kojima, Yasuo. “How to Deal with ‘Return to Rural Living’.” 2021. Page 5.

[19] Pause and Select. “Talking to Inori” 2020.
https://www.pauseandselect.com/articles/talking-to-inori

[20] Groen, Andrew. Ars Technica. “The Death March: The Problem of Crunch Time in Game Development.” 2011.
https://arstechnica.com/gaming/2011/05/the-death-march-the-problem-of-crunch-time-in-game-development/
Archived version (2020):
https://web.archive.org/web/20201112024638/https://arstechnica.com/gaming/2011/05/the-death-march-the-problem-of-crunch-time-in-game-development/

[21] Jiang, Sisi. Kotaku. “'BioWare Magic Is Shit Process,' Says Former Dragon Age Producer.” 2022.
https://kotaku.com/bioware-magic-is-bullshit-says-former-dragon-age-pro-1848385237
Archived version (2022):
https://web.archive.org/web/20220421025041/https://kotaku.com/bioware-magic-is-bullshit-says-former-dragon-age-pro-1848385237

[22] Ainana, Hiro. Syosetsu. “デスマーチからはじまる異世界狂想曲” (Death March kara Hajimaru Isekai Kyousoukyoku.) 2013.
https://ncode.syosetu.com/novelview/infotop/ncode/n9902bn/

[23] Morrissy, Kim. Anime News Network. “Mushoku Tensei Is Not the Pioneer of Isekai Web Novels, But…” 2021.
https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/feature/2021-03-19/mushoku-tensei-is-not-the-pioneer-of-isekai-web-novels-but/.170429
Archived version (2021):
https://web.archive.org/web/20210320182802/https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/feature/2021-03-19/mushoku-tensei-is-not-the-pioneer-of-isekai-web-novels-but/.170429

[24] Bizinger, Joey (The Anime Man). YouTube. “I Met and Confronted the Creator of Redo of Healer…” 2021.
https://youtu.be/n5sr-xdN13I

[25] Murayama, Kugane. (Overlord author) Syosetsu. 2011. Translation.
“Shousetsuka ni Narou’s system is completely different than that of Arcadia. I’m a bit disappointed that I can’t seem to get a hang of the functions. However, it looks like you can do a ton of stuff, so it’s a lot of fun.”

https://mypage.syosetu.com/mypageblog/view/userid/170524/blogkey/242800/

[26] Dupree, Nicholas & Liu, Michelle. Anime News Network. “This Week in Anime: What Went Wrong in Death March to the Parallel World Rhapsody?” 2018.
https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/this-week-in-anime/2018-03-06/.128596
Archived version (2018):
https://web.archive.org/web/20180309121810/https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/this-week-in-anime/2018-03-06/.128596

Glossary

Narou-kei ｜なろう系｜Amateur-type

Narou-kei or Narou is a term that describes a narrative trend of stories that feature incredibly strong or “overpowered” protagonists who usually garner a large amount of support from others. Usually in the form of parties (à la JRPGs) of characters which may or may not be in the form of harems. The term stems from the website. But it does not describe every story from Syosetsu nor can it only describe stories from it.

Tensei ｜転生｜Reincarnation

Tensei is a subgenre of isekai in which the mode of transportation to the other world is death and reincarnation. The form in which they’re reincarnated as is dependent on the work. For example, some are reincarnated as newborns (e.g. Mushoku Tensei). The genre tends to be very concerned about what the conditions of the death were (such as overworking or suicide). Reincarnation could also be featured in non-isekai narou fiction.

Shoukan｜召喚｜Summoning

Shoukan is a subgenre of isekai in which the mode of transportation to the other world is the main character being summoned. Typically via a god/goddess or priests/mages. Shoukan works also have a tendency to feature narratives have extremely beneficial OR extremely detrimental relationships with the god/goddess that summoned them (e.g Kuro no Shoukanshi or Arifureta respectively).

Shounen｜少年｜Boy

Shounen is a demographic primarily used for manga and the magazines they’re published in. The age range is typically around younger teens. A common misbelief is that shounen is a genre. While there are trends in its storytelling; early shounen manga “tend to linger on war.” (Kotani 2006) It itself is simply a demographic to be marketed towards.

Kotani, Mari. Mechademia Vol. 1. “Metamorphosis of the Japanese Girl: The Girl, the Hyper-Girl, and the Battling Beauty.” 2006. Page 230.

Shoujo｜少女｜Girl

Shoujo is a demographic primarily used for manga and the magazines they’re published in. The age range is typically around younger teens. A common misbelief is that shoujo is a genre. While there are trends in its storytelling; early shoujo manga tend to “cope with love and romance.” (Kotani 2006) It itself is simply a demographic to be marketed towards. Media scholar Kotani Mari mentions that while the demographic was marketed towards female writers and readers, it was “controlled by decidedly conservative male editors” which led towards the stories published in shoujo magazines tending to have hyperfeminized imagery.